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Nuachtán No.8 - January/Eanáir 2001

Origins

As we have already reported the noted scholar of Irish Surnames Edward MacLysaght recorded that the entire Mullarkey family appear to have left their Donegal homeland en masse towards the end of the 16th century. We do not know whether they were forced out by the Ó Domhnaill clan overlord, or were displaced by the English army of Queen Elizabeth which was rampaging through Ireland. From the mid 1590's the insurrection by Aoidh Ó Néill in Tyrone and Aoidh Ó Domhnaill in Donegal brought conflict to much of Ulster and East Connacht. In such circumstances population displacement would be probable, so that MacLysaght's account seems possible. Some sources suggest that the O'Donnells may have wanted the Maelearcaidh clan out for some reason.

One group of exiles appears to have settled in the Tubbercurry area of County Sligo, and another group appears to have settled further south in the Dunmore area of County Galway.

In the 17th century religious persecution began to impact on the Irish population. These issues came to a head when the Catholic king James II of England attempted to reverse this process. The change in policy prompted rebellion in England and with the establishment backing the usurper William of Orange, James was forced to flee to Ireland. In 1688-89 James travelled through Connacht looking for soldiers for his army to fight William. James recruited some Mullarkey's in Galway and they marched off to the Province of Ulster to join the fight against King William's forces.

By tradition some of these Connacht Mullarkey's in James' army fought at the battle of Newtownbutler in county Fermanagh in 1689. The outcome of the battle was disasterous for the Irish. A small number of Connacht Mullarkey's who survived the battle managed to go to ground in the Rosslea area, some 10 miles from the battlefield. Once settled in the area they began working as weavers and farmers. Their descendants are still to be found in the locality of Rosslea.

The above provides a rational explanation to much of the 19th century pattern of location of the family as highlighted in the map showing the Griffiths valuation returns discussed in Newsletter number 6. However the one notable aspect of the Griffiths valuation is that there was not one clan member recorded as living in Donegal. One can only conclude therefore that the 16th century removal from Donegal appears to have been 100% effective, an extraordinary result for the period. Such an effect implies a degree of acceptance by the clan, which would tend to support the view that they moved on instruction from the O'Donnell clan overlord. We need to look for more evidence to either support or disprove the above. If the account proves accurate it may also mean that the clan moved well before the flight of the Gaelic princes from Ireland in 1607, that is prior to the initial major English plantation of Ulster.

One wonders why the clan split, relocating in several parts of Connacht. Apart from the concentrations referred to above around Dunmore in Galway and Tubbercurry in Sligo, there is a third concentration of clan in Connacht in North West Mayo. It could be that this concentration was the result of latter dislocations caused by the main Ulster Plantations of the mid 17th century.

One wonders whether the clan 's location in the Lough Foyle area between counties Donegal and Derry, resulted from descendants of clan survivors of the Gaelic army of James II, involved in the famous siege of Derry, now Londonderry. Plausibly, economic factors in the 19th century may have drawn clan from further west to the area around Derry, looking for work.

In newsletter number 6 we noted that the only other noteworthy clan concentrations were in Munster. The most important of these is in county Cork, just to the north of Cobh and Cork city. This may have arisen from clan attracted to the British military and naval bases in the area. Indeed because of the deep harbour and large population, Cork was a major centre for recruitment and a huge logistical base for the British army and navy .

Alternatively it could be that the clan presence in Munster might be the reminent of a totally separate clan sept based on the county Kerry connection with Saint Erc at Termon Eirc. Finally, and perhaps in line with a martial tradition, it could be that these Cork clan members are descendants of survivors of the Irish army of Aodh O Néill, defeated at the battle of Cinn Sáile in 1601.

This would then leave only the small clan concentration around Birr on the Offaly-Tipperary border as unexplained. One other question raised by the Griffiths data is the lack of any clan presence around Dublin, Ireland's principal urban centre in the 19th century. We have previously noted that even in the 18th century some clan suceeded and prospered on the fringes of the Anglo-Irish establishment. In most cases such individuals were then living in the Dublin area. Their disappearance in the 19th century points to emigration of this class in the late 18th or early 19th centurys.

Hearth Money Rolls for County Donegal and Sligo 1665

The Hearth Money Act passed by the Irish Parliament in 1662, as amended by a further act in 1665, introduced a tax of 2 shillings per year on every hearth in a house. This not surprisingly resulted in householders ensuring that they did not have more than one functioning hearth in their dwellings in order to save money. Because of Ireland's climate, the tax was extremely unpopular. A similar act was also introduced into England, however opposition there led to its abolition in 1689. Despite the unpopularity of the law in Ireland, the Hearth Tax continued until the Act of Union in 1801. Initially the very poorest in Irish society were exempted from liability to pay the tax, however widespread abuse led to it's full enforcement without exception. To ensure payment Hearth Money Rolls were drawn up, listing households with hearths for each county. There are extant Rolls for Donegal (at PRONI MS9583), Monaghan (History of County Monaghan by DC Rush page 291-338), Fermanagh (MS9583), Derry (MS9584) and Sligo (Anelecta Hibernica No 24 page 74). Sadly there are no records for Mayo, Galway or Roscommon.

Clearly we need to examine all the above extant records. With regard to both the Donegal and Sligo Rolls the records show three members of our clan :-

• Daniell Mullarky at Kilmacteige parish , Cashecarroger (Castlecarragh) townland
• James Mullarky at Kilmacteige parish , Cashecarroger (Castlecarragh) townland
• ? Mullarky at Kilmacteige parish , Cashecarroger (Castlecarragh) townland
  

Notably none of the clan recorded has the 'O' prefix. All the recorded persons are in Sligo, with none in Donegal. As with other early Sligo records, the family is placed in the same general area of the Kilmacteige parish.

Hibernia Chronicle 1776-1780

An index extracted by Miss Goulding of the Society of Genealogists in 1947 from the Hibernia Chronicle lists the following death notice:-

13 March 1780 Column 9 no 21 Mullarky Jn. Acct. D (died at) King St., Oxmantown Co. Dublin.

The above refers to a John Mullarky, accountant who practiced in County Dublin. This, as with a number of other references, points to a clan presence amongst the Dublin professional classes in the late 18th century. The success of a small number of clan either indicates exceptional individuals rising above religious prejudices, or a degree of religious and cultural conversion by those Irish who wished to progress. To establish which view is correct we need to find out more information about such clan members as John Mullarky.

The historical context in which the Ó Maelearcaidh clan developed in Ireland - Series Issue No. 8

We set out below part 8 of our short Irish history series. In order to place the Ó Maelearcaidh clan data into it's historical and sociological context we shall over several issues set out a history of Ireland, covering the period from approximately 1140 to the early 1800's. Within the context of a general history, we shall provide a more detailed account of events between 1500 and 1700, as this was the defining period during which the Gaelic order, the clan system and culture underpinning it were transformed into the proto system and culture of the modern day.

By the middle of the 16th century there was a state of near anarchy in Scotland, resulting from the religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants. In 1560 the French king Francis died and Mary Stuart (Mary Queen of Scots) therefore ceased to be the French queen, with the French Crown passing to the next male heir. The 17 year old Mary decided to return to Scotland to assume her rule as queen of Scots. Mary Stuart was a Catholic, but she had been brought up in what was for the times, sophisticated society. Her attitudes were far removed from the extremism of narrow minded religious fanaticism. It was therefore a courageous step to wish to return to a country, which was in religious turmoil and had been under the marshal law of Lord Hamilton. Through Marie de Guise, Mary Stuart made it known that if accepted by the Scots as monarch, she would gladly tolerate both the Protestant Kirk and the Catholic church in her realm. As a result Lord Hamilton in an effort to normalize society relinquished authority to Marie de Guise as regent. In 1561 Mary Stuart returned to Scotland, but soon found that she faced considerable opposition, both from ambitious nobles such as the Earl Moray who wished to claim the throne for themselves, but also from religious fanatics in the Kirk, led by John Knox.

John Knox had been the private chaplain to Edward VI of England. His views had had a major impact on both Edward and Elizabeth. Therefore on her accession to the English throne, Elizabeth I had sent Knox to Scotland to lead the Presbyterian movement. Elizabeth wished to see the continued spread of Protestantism, but it was also to England's advantage to have pro English support in the Kirk. Elizabeth also wanted rid of Knox, as he was a Protestant extremist, who could only eccerbate religious conflict in England. Furthermore he was an outspoken misogynist who might undermine her position at court. It was much better to have Knox lambasting the Queen of Scotland, rather than herself. Therefore Elizabeth bankrolled Knox and his movement. He in turn delivered the Scots an uncompromising version of Presbyterianism, intolerant of Catholics, and especially intolerant of a Catholic queen. The heightened sectarian chaos caused in Scotland was to Elizabeth's advantage, as any opposition to her from Scotland was thereby neutralized.

In England, rather than fermenting more hatred through persecution, Elizabeth pursued a more refined religious policy, enticing Catholics into a new Anglican church, a hybrid version of Protestantism with some degree of Catholic ceremony. Indeed it was only with her publication in 1563 of the 39 Articles of Protestant faith for the Anglican church, that a decisive split with Rome was made. A window for reconciliation remained open until 1570 when the Pope finally issued the order excommunicating her.

With her rule a little more secure in England, Elizabeth was able to devote more time to Irish matters. Henry Sidney, who became Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1565 proposed a policy to her to effect a rapid defeat and anglicizing of the Gael, by extending the Bellingham plantation concept to the whole of the island. The plan involved three parts:-

• Extend the Seneschal system to the remaining Gaelic parts of Leinster to gradually eliminate Gaelic rule, effectively incorporating the whole of Leinster into the Pale,
• Reform the feudal lordships to control the Old English nobility, and finally
• Launch all out war against Shane Ó Néill in Ulster and expel his Scots Gaelic allies from N. East Ulster.

Queen Elizabeth considered Sidney's proposals, but realised that his suggestion for the building of 8 garrisons and provisioning of 2,000 men just to control Ulster was a higher cost than she was prepared to commit. But Henry Sidney was a product of his times, in which free enterprise was at its uncontrolled extreme. It was a time when lands were being carved out in the American New World by Spanish adventurers. Sidney had no moral problems in pursuing his policy by private means, if the Crown was unwilling to act. He approached other entrepreneurs who recruited an army of land hungry English adventurers. In the Munster colony of Kerricurrihy, west of Cork city the land grab was in the nature of asset stripping, which drew the Gael and the Gaelic speaking Old English together in opposition to plantation. Events caused the Crown to realize that it could not allow the plantations to go ahead without some military control. The danger the New English posed was that their excesses threatened to unite the Irish and Old English against the Dublin authorities.

Hand in hand with the need to control New English excesses Elizabeth was also under pressure from her advisers to agree measures to contain the Irish, as well as assent to laws prohibiting Scots Highlanders and Islesmen from settling in Ireland. Whilst Elizabeth recognised that eradication of the Gael in Ireland was not a readily achievable goal in the short term, all measures that might weaken their unity should be considered. This included attempts to draw some of the Gael towards loyalty to England, the English language and Protestant religion. In Scotland Seon Carsuel had translated Knox's Book of Common Prayer into Gaelic in 1567. The lack of success in converting the Gael in Ireland to Protestantism increasingly forced the established church to look to Scotland for Gaelic speeking Protestant preachers for Ireland.

In 1561 Elizabeth appointed her favourite, the Earl of Sussex, to the post of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and commanded him to raise an army to punish Shane Ó Néill. In Dublin Sussex proclaimed Ó Néill's a traitor and marched north. But Shane refused to engage the larger English forces, simply retreating further north with his cattle and supplies. Eventually Sussex reached the river Blackwater, which was in full flood and with insufficient supplies to continued the chase, was obliged to return empty handed to Dublin. The failure embarassed Sussex before his Old English political enemies in Dublin and the Queen. A disappointed Elizabeth sent Sussex £2,000 to hire additional Irish mercenaries in a new campaign. Additionally she provided him with some 700 English recruits and supplies to guarantee success. This time he succeeded in capturing Shane's cattle at Omagh, but the ellusive Shane and his troops simply refused to engage Sussex, using instead guerilla warefare tactics to snipe at Sussex's men. Unable to link up with his military supplies, Sussex was forced once again to return empty handed to Dublin. There he claimed to a sceptical administration that Shane was finished as a military threat, only to then hear that Ó Néill's army had devastated county Meath, just north of Dublin.

Elizabeth concluded that it might be better to recognise Shane's title as the Ó Néill and gain his loyalty rather than continued the conflict which only seemed to be strengthening his grip on Ulster. Therefore she offered to forget the past and offered talks. Travelling to England under offer of safe conduct and in the presence of ambassadors from Sweden, Savoy, Spain and Venice, Shane met Elizabeth herself. After some weeks of consideration, she finally agreed to making him the Earl of Tyrone and recognise him as "Captain of O'Cahan country and much of Antrim." The English were to retain their garrison at Armagh, but Ó Néill had in all but name become the overlord of Ulster. Sussex was outraged. Shane for his part made a great show of remorse for his previous conduct. But the other Ulster nobles feared the return of Shane. Now that he was officially accepted by the English as their overlord, they feared that he would sweep them all away.

On his return to Ulster, Shane turned on the Ó Domhnaill's, who had supported the campaign by Sussex. He devastated their lands, carrying off many of their cattle. He then attacked the O'Reilly's and O'Hanlons, before similarly attacking the much more formidable Maguighir's of Fermanagh. Ulster was ravaged end to end, resulting in thousands starving and destitute. All appeals by the Irish lords to Sussex for help were ignored. The angry O'Hanlon chief said that "it would be better to serve the worst Irishman than to trust the queen."

In 1563 fearing the boldness and ruthlessness of Shane, Sussex finally mounted a fresh attack on him. Shane again waged a guerilla war of attrition against Sussex's men, as they fearfully marched north through the woodlands and bogs. Struggling also against the conditions and terrible weather, the English eventually reached the government base at Armagh. Exhausted by their efforts, Sussex's men was hit by one final surprise attack, which resulted in him lossing many of his supplies. Sussex was totally exposed and obliged yet again to retreat to the safety of Dublin. Angered by his failure he personally organised a second campaign, this time he got as far as Clogher, but again by avoiding a full engagement Shane managed not only to preserve his power, but also to spirit away his cattle. Sussex believed he could given time defeat Ó Néill, but Elizabeth had lost patience. She decided to go over his head agreeing to another ceasefire with Shane and then agreeing a new peace deal. She ordered the disbanding of the English base at Armagh, enabling Shane to further extend his control. Sussex had been totally outmanouvered militarily and politically by Ó Néill.

In England political rivals of Sussex, in particular Robert Dudley, the Earl of Leicester saw an opportunity to gain the queen's ear at the expense of Sussex. Dudley advised Shane that if he drove out the Scots from the glen of Antrim, this would gain for him even more favour from Elizabeth. Shane fell for the bait. He had claimed overlordship of the glens, but attacking the Scots could not add significantly to his position and the danger was that he would overextend himself if his Irish enemies united with the Scots of the isles and western highlands. With Dublin encouraging his actions, Shane attacked the Antrim Scots in force in 1565. As predicted, aid from the Scottish west coast MacDonnell clan came to help Sorley Boy MacDonnell in his defence of Antrim. Shane's campaign was fierce and soon the Scots found themselves mounting a last stand on the slopes of Knocklayd. Shane revelled in his victory, killing many of the Scots and reporting the victory to Dublin. Both Mary Queen of Scots and Queen Elizabeth asked Shane to be merciful to James MacDonnell, however Shane was ruthless with his enemies and allowed the leader of the MacDonnell clan to die of his wounds. Ó Néill boasted to Lord Sidney that,

"my ancestors were kings of Ulster..and (Ulster) shall be mine."

He warned that no English administrators, or armies would again be allowed into Ulster. Shane had truly become a genuine danger to English authority in Ireland. Were other Irish regions to follow suite, Ireland could be in uproar.

Elizabeth was determined that she had to destroy him. While Shane turned his attention to taking the English military base at Dundalk, Elizabeth sent a force by sea to land north of his army. Simultaneously Sidney led a second much larger force, strengthened by Ulster opponents such as Calvagh Ó Domhnaill and Shane Maguighir from the south. Shane Ó Néill followed his strategy of guerilla warefare, slowing down Lord Sidney's army, but this time the English were not halted. Fermanagh was freed from his rule and a new English fort built at Derry. Shane continued to evade a full military engagement, as Calvagh Ó Domhnaill was restored to govern Tír Conaill. The cat and mouse chase continued. Unpredictably Shane attacked the new fort at Derry. The assault in November 1566 initially went poorly. Shane lacked artillery or arquebusiers (the latest firearms) and the defenders, though few in number, were well armed. Nevertheless the fort was taken by luck, as the gunpowder supplies accidentally exploded. But events had weakened Shane and when he finally threw his men against Tír Conaill at Farsetmore, he was heavily defeated by a combination of MacSweeneys and Ó Domhnaills.

With his army destroyed and nowhere else to run, Shane as unpredictable as ever asked for help from his old adversaries, the Scots of Antrim. He had one last card to play. In a hope to win over the Scots, he returned Somhairle Buí from captivity to the MacDonnells. In a piece of predictable theatre, the MacDonnells prepared a welcome for Shane and whilst he feasted with them, they promptly killed him. The MacDonnells had secretly agreed with Sidney to assasinate Shane in exchange for the reconition by Dublin of their right to live in Antrim. So in 1567 the coalition of Ó Neill clan rivals, Ó Donnells and Scots Gael settlers from Antrim, finally laid low the great Seán (an Díomuis) Ó Néill. With Shane dead and the Gael of Ulster once again without a strong leader, the English predictably renaged on their agreement with the Scots of Antrim. Sidney formulated his "Ulster Plan" to drive out the Scots and push the Irish back west of the River Bann. The plan was to properly consolidate Crown control by then offering the lands of east of the river Bann to his associates amongst the New English.

Meanwhile to contain further Irish resistance to the expansion of English control in Ireland, Queen Elizabeth I followed a dual policy of enticing the Ulster and Connacht nobles into treaties. During the period of peace she continued the build up of English militarily strength within the Pale for the ultimate military conquest of Ireland. For now the stronger Gaelic Princes had the military strength to extract rents from the New English Protestant settlers, but without a united front, they could not oppose the expanding authority of Dublin.

In Scotland Mary Stuart gave birth to a son and heir, by her husband Lord Darnley (Henry Stewart). Rebellion and rivalries for the Scottish throne soon led to the murder of Darnley. Following her remarriage to James Hepburn, the Earl of Bothwell, Mary was confronted with yet another rebellion led by jealous rivals. This time her forces were defeated and the Moray faction wasted no time in forcing Mary to abdicate in favour of her one year old infant son, the future James VI, with Earl Moray as regent. James was crowned at the parish Kirk at Sterling on 24 July 1567. The first action of the new regent was to abolish papal authority in Scotland and to proclaim the Protestant religion as the country's faith, which immediately earned the new regime Elizabeth's support. In May 1568 intrigue and the murder of people close to her, eventually forced Mary Stuart to flee Scotland for her safety. However rather than going to the security of France, she fled to England where she was immediately incarcerated. So began Mary's long 19 year imprisonment.

Elizabeth's policy in Ireland was torn by contradictions, stemming in part from her racial and religious prejudices. Her Parliament in 1569 urged the provision of English speaking ministers in Ireland as well as the setting up of schools to teach English, whilst at the same time urging at least one service in every town to be in Irish. Elizabeth even had an Irish phrase book printed and created the first print fount for Irish Gaelic. Based on this Gaelic fount she had a number of Protestant books produced, including a Catecism in 1571. One can clearly see from her actions that whilst she was a vehement Anglophile, by contrast she also wanted to advance the Protestant religion, and was prepared to do so by the most practical means, even if that meant sustaining the Gaelic language.

Sir Henry Sidney persued the new policy of controlling the natives and Old English, by seeking to draw their leaders into accepting the authority of new government structures throughout Ireland. To this end he gained submission of the Mayo Burkes and Galway Burkes into accepting English dominion of an English Governor of Connacht. This would tentatively bring the Province of Connacht under English rule. In July 1569 Sir Edward Fitton was appointed as the new Governor of Connacht with a council to assist him. One of his first actions was to rule on the boundary between the new English counties of Connacht and the boundary with Thomand to the South. The Mayo Burkes were soon in conflict with the Governor unable to accept his authority. Inevitably the English enlisted the Galway Burkes in the ensuing conflict in a classic policy of divide an conquer. In June 1570 at the battle of Shrule despite the forces against them, the Mayo Burkes managed to win the day. Nevertheless shortly afterwards realizing their isolated position, the Mayo Burkes concluded they had no option other than to submit to Crown rule.

Sidney continued to develope his "Ulster Plan" recruiting English merchants, artisans and other businessmen willing to take on the risks of Plantation for a share in the carve up of Antrim and Down. He also looked for investors to underwrite the cost of the military campaign, finally securing the backing of the Earl of Leicester. Sidney waited for the right moment when he could put the plan into effect.

Spain and Portugal had enjoyed a monopoly to exploit the treasures of the New World, confirmed by the Vatican since the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. The treaty designed to prevent conflict between the then two main European super powers over trade with new found lands, was prior to the emergence of New Protestant states such as England. The treaty also sidelined France, a major European force. Therefore there were demands from merchants of many countries, outside the Iberian peninsula to enjoy a piece of the lucrative New World trade. From the early 1560's French Huguenot buccaneers had taken the law into their own hands, both attacking Spanish shipping returning laden from the Americas and trying to carve out their own lines of commerce. In 1568 an illicit commercial fleet sponsored by Elizabeth was intercepted by a Spanish fleet off the coast of Mexico, and following the engagement only a handful of English traders led by John Hawkins survived. Elizabeth vowed revenge and gave assistance to French Huguenot buccaneers in an attack on a large Spanish treasure fleet. The actions of Elizabeth's buccaneers against Spanish treasure ships immediately transformed the relationship between England and Spain.

With now the finances in place and English adventurers willing to be involved, Lord Sidney gained Elizabeth's agreement to launch his Ulster Project. But the number of colonists did not materialise, as many waited for certainty that the native Irish threat had been dealt with. The new leader of the Uí Néill was Turlough Luineach Ó Néill. Following the devisive era of Shane Ó Néill, Turlough managed to resume good relations between the Uí Néill and their neighbouring clans. He used the new co-operation to hire large numbers of Gallóglaigh from the Ó Domhnaills. By carefully combining strategic alliances with decisive repression of his rivals, Turlough rebuilt Uí Néill power throughout Ulster. His success increasingly posed a real threat to Sidney's Ulster project. With fears increasing, New English colonists began to pull out of the plantation scheme. Sidney appealed for backup. But there was no support available. Rebellion had broken out in Munster in 1568, irregular New English plantations there had sparked off major Old English violence. With Dublin's forces tied down in Munster, there were no English soldiers available to enable his project to go ahead.

Despite the lack of progress, Sidney's New English backers in London some how managed to get authorisation from Elizabeth to also plant the Ó Néill Clandeboye lands in Ulster. The new Lord Deputy, Sir William FitzWilliam, a man with Old English sympathies, protested to London that such authorisation was unacceptable. Briain Ó Néill, chief of the Clandeboyes was pro English and an ally of Dublin. He had fought with Dublin against Shane Ó Néill and had even been knighted for his efforts. By betraying Briain Ó Néill, London was undermining the whole Old English policy of surrender and regrant. When faced with the threat of loosing his lands, Briain Ó Néill threw his support behind Turlough Luineach Ó Néill and fell on the would be planters.

The instability caused by London breaking it's word to Irish loyalists led to insurrection all over Ireland. In 1572 the Mayo Burkes of Connacht nolonger able to trust English guarantees of their land rights, briefly came out in revolt this time with some of the Galway Burkes. The revolt quickly petered out as English authority extended it's military will in Connacht. The Mayo Burkes learned the cost of disloyalty to Elizabeth and resolved to support future Crown initiatives, especially if it would enhance their status vis-a-vis their rival Galway (Clanrickard) Burkes.

Attacks by English Buccaneers on Spanish shipping stung Philip into action. He responded by having all English owned property in Spain confiscated. Philip's previously expressed desires to see Elizabeth replaced were now fleshed out, with actual plans for invasion of England. Philip developed the idea of using the Spanish controlled Netherlands as a springboard for invasion. But through her European intelligence network Elizabeth found out about the invasion plan , as well as Philip's plans for her assassination. Philip's advisers persuaded him from immediate action, for which Elizabeth was heartily relieved, as she realised that her forces were still not strong enough to face a direct conflict with Spain. Elizabeth concluded that her best policy was to delay and divert the Spanish from invasion until she could build up English defenses.

Therefore between 1572 and 1577 Elizabeth sanctioned and even supported the privateering of adventurers such as John Hawkins and Francis Drake against Spanish treasure ships. In this way she aimed to reduce Spain's ability to finance war against England and her allies. More directly, Elizabeth also sought to prevent Spain gaining free access to the ports in the Spanish Netherlands. By openly supporting the Protestant cause in the Spanish colonial territories of the Low Countries, she sought to exercerbate Spain`s military and colonial problems.

From 1572 Queen Elizabeth had been sending aid secretly to help Protestant rebels in the Netherlands, who were fighting to establish a Protestant republic independent of Spanish colonial government. The fighting in the Low Countries had led to the garrisoning of a large professional Spanish army in this strategic part of Europe, to control the Dutch. Not only was Spain's traditional enemy, France worried by this situation, but now England had particular cause for worry as did the small German Protestant states.

In Ireland the New Protestant English saw the opportunity to accumulate wealth and power quickly by playing to the Elizabethan prejudices towards culture and religion. To this end they now took every opportunity to portray the Dublin establishment of the Old English/Norman Irish as inherently disloyal, Catholic, Gaelic and only a short step removed from the racially inferior Gael. By contrast the Old English declared that the policy of agression to the Irish and plantation were not only destructive to peace and good order, but also counter to the aim of drawing the Gael into loyalty to the Crown, as foreseen in the Act for the Kingly Title. The Old English of the Pale represented by Sir Christopher Barnwell in conjunction with the Old English feudal Lords outside the Pale, represented by Sir Edmund Butler, constructed an effective political alliance to try to defend the interests of the Old English. They did so by restraining the policies of the New English in the Irish Parliament through the Old English voting majority. Henry Sidney had not expected the Irish Parliament to oppose his Plantation policy and his administration was forced to concede a number of issues.

Unable to get their way legally, the New English ignored the laws to protect the landholdings of the Old English and Irish. Irregular plantations inevitably led to rebellion. There were no less than 6 Old English rebellions between 1568 and 1583. On the whole these were not rebellions against the Crown, but resistance to the actions of the New English. One interesting feature of these Old English rebels was that they rejected not just the New English laws, but they rejected the New English ways, even reverting to native Irish dress.

In 1573 the Queen's new favourite, and hero of the New English philosopy, Walter Devereau, the Earl of Essex was appointed Governor of Ulster. He was so confident in his abilities that he mortgaged his English estates to finance a campaign to defeat the Clandeboyes. Elizabeth offered him most of county Antrim should he succeed. With little alternative Briain Ó Néill was forced to surrender to Essex and plead forgiveness from the Crown. Essex, assuming the Clandeboyes were now pliant took 10,000 head of their cattle. But his fellow settlers were less courageous and feared a counterattack by the Clandeboyes. Essex noted that settlers were increasingly deserting him. Suddenly the tables turned as Briain Ó Néill recaptured his cattle, inspiring wholesale desertions by Essex's now very nervous New English settlors.

Essex for his part complained about his difficulties to anyone prepared to listen. He finally decided on drastic action to preserve the venture, hanging some deserters as examples to the rest. He also showed the true cruel depths of New English hearts by murdering issolated groups of Gael, stealing their cattle and despoiling crops. In October 1574 an act of perfidious treachery, he pretended to offer the hand of friendship to Briain Ó Néill, making a great feast for him in Belfast castle. While the banquet was in full swing, Essex had Ó Néill, his wife and brother seized. In the presence of all his guests and in front of Ó Néill, all Ó Néill's people in the hall were murdered, men women and children. Briain himself, together with his wife and brother were sent to Dublin where they were hanged, before being drawn and quartered, "a la Braveheart style".

Somhairle Buí MacDonnell had become prince of the Scots of Antrim. The MacDonnells also had extensive interests in the western isles. Whilst the neighbouring Irish clans generally welcomed their presence in the Antrim glens, they posed a threat to New English expansion in Antrim. The Dublin policy over decades had been to drive them out of Ireland if possible. Somhairle was a very talented leader and managed to broker a peace treaty with the Campbell's his clan's old adversaries in the western isles. With his Scottish possessions secure, he then deepened his Irish alliances, by arranging for his brother's sister to marry Turlough Luineach Ó Néill, the most powerful of the Ulster Irish leaders, and for his neice, "Iníon Dubh" to marry Aoidh Ó Domhnaill, king of Tír Chonaill, probably second only in power to Turlough Luineach. These marriage alliances drew the Scots and Irish closer together.

Essex viewing events had had enough of Somhairle and his Scots. In July 1575 he sent an army against them led by Captain John Norris and Francis Drake. The army moved north by sea and attacked the Scots based on Rathlin island. The fighting raged for days as the Scots retreated inside the castle. A truce was agreed and the defenders agreed to terms of surrender. But once the English took possession, they went beserk and slaughtered everyone, defenders and civilians alike. A tragic Somhairle witnessed the unfolding tragedy from the Irish mainland as his kinsmen and women were murdered. That this brutal policy was official policy can be seen in the fulsome praise heaped on John Norris by a delighted Queen Elizabeth. But apart from the destruction of Rathlin the expedition failed to dislodge the Scots out of Antrim, indeed Somhairle attacked the main English castle in Ulster at Carrickfergus in revenge.

In September 1575 a campaign by English troops led by Lord Sidney was far more successful forcing Turlough Luineach himself to pledge loyalty to the Crown at Armagh. Lord Sidney was no woolley liberal, he generally agreed with the policy of brutality and land grabbing. However he differed from Essex in believing that the size of the task was too great for private enterprise to finance. Elizabeth reluctantly agreed and so she appointed Essex Earl Marshall of Ireland, a post based in Dublin. With her favourite Essex promoted to a desk job, Elizabeth effectively got him out of the Ulster hot seat. She now hoped that Sidney might have greater success. His options narrowed as the economic constraints on the English economy, meant that Elizabeth was nolonger prepared to even maintain her current military budget in Ireland. This could only be good news for the Irish, as one third of the English army in Ireland was disbanded.

The new closeness between the Ulster Irish and Scots nobles following the intermarriages led to a deepening co-operation, with a flood of Scots now settling in Antrim to the dismay of the Dublin authorities.

With Spain increasing it's military expenditure, the war in the Netherlands gradually swung in her favour through 1577. Events moved rapidly as Elizabeth became more deeply involved in European politics. In 1578 fearing a collapse of the Dutch forces in the war in the Netherlands, the coalition against Spain, including England began to openly sent troops to help the Dutch. This was the culmination of an amazing transformation in European alliances. England was now in alliance with her traditional enemies France and Scotland against Spain, who had been her ally since the times of Henry VIII.

"The state of the world is marvelously changed, when we true Englishmen have cause for our own quietness to wish good success to a King of France and a King of Scots." ( Lord Burghley)

Developing conflict and conspiracy in Ireland was seen in Catholic Spain as an objective which might distract English military resources and weaken England's ability to intervene in the Netherlands. The connections between Spain and Ireland go back into the mist of prehistory. The stories of Irish mythology place the Gael in Spain prior to arriving in Ireland. This belief together with a common Catholicism coloured Irish relations with Spain and an Irish contingent had assisted King Ferdinand with the final defeat of the Moorish state of Granada in 1510. The Spanish for their part appear to have regarded the Irish as some distant part of the Spanish family. Indeed successive Spanish monarchs treated Irishmen as Spanish subjects. There were also ties of trade between Spain and Ireland.

To open up a new front in 1580, Philip II was well disposed to make available ships for an invasion of Ireland by Irish exiles, who planned to instigate a general rebellion. The Vatican provided the financial support and encouragement for this "Catholic crusade". The exiles had based themselves on the headland at Smerwick, on the west coast of Kerry. Philip's ships carried supplies, provisions and munitions for their cause, together with some 800 Italian and Spanish volunteers. However after so much failed insurrection, the Irish population was fearful of the consequences. Also the question of religious affiliation was still not the profound issue in Ireland it was latter to become. The rebels soon realised that their presence was not going to cause the popular revolt they had naively expected. For some time they were going to have to depend on their own resources, but before they had an opportunity to link up with local rebels, the English sent forces to crush them. A naval squadron led by Sir William Winter blockaded the coast area and pounded the rebel position in Smerwick. The rebels could not have been in a worse location as they could be bombarded by sea on three sides. Meanwhile English land forces led by Lord Deputy Grey cut off the headland. Reinforced with troops commanded by Sir Walter Raleigh, the English finally overran the defenders after 3 days resistance. All but 15 of the surviving defenders were slaughtered, despite promises of fair terms of surrender. For now Philip was forced to cut his losses in Ireland and as he had not actually financed the rebels, he was able to conveniently disavow the whole incident.